Glossary

A

Absolute vs relative risk

Absolute risk is your actual chance of something happening; relative risk compares chances between groups. A drug that 'halves risk' from 2 in 1,000 to 1 in 1,000 has a big relative effect but a small absolute one. Breakthroughs →

Adverse event

Any unwanted medical occurrence in a person taking part in a study or using a treatment, whether or not the treatment caused it. Trials record adverse events so researchers can look for patterns. Breakthroughs →

Allele

One of the different versions of a gene or DNA position. You usually inherit one allele from each parent. Genome + Cells →

Antibody-drug conjugate

A cancer treatment that links an antibody, which seeks out a specific marker on cancer cells, to a potent drug. The idea is to deliver the drug more directly to tumour cells and spare healthy ones. Cancer Frontiers →

B

Base pair

Two chemical 'letters' (A with T, or C with G) that pair up across the two strands of DNA. Genome sizes are usually counted in base pairs. Genome + Cells →

Biologic

A medicine made from or by living cells, such as an antibody, vaccine or engineered protein, rather than by chemical synthesis. Biologics are usually larger and more complex than traditional pill-type drugs. Companies + Stocks →

Biomarker

A measurable sign of a biological state, such as a protein level in blood, a gene change in a tumour, or a feature on a scan. Biomarkers can help diagnose disease, predict risk or track treatment. Breakthroughs →

Biosimilar

A biologic medicine that is highly similar to an already-approved biologic, with no clinically meaningful differences in safety or effectiveness. It is roughly the biologic equivalent of a generic drug. Companies + Stocks →

C

CAR-T cell therapy

A treatment in which a patient's own T cells are engineered in a lab to carry a receptor (a chimeric antigen receptor) that recognises cancer cells, then infused back. It is approved for certain blood cancers. Cancer Frontiers →

Checkpoint inhibitor

A type of immunotherapy that blocks 'brake' signals on immune cells, helping them attack cancer. It works well for some patients and cancer types but not for others. Cancer Frontiers →

Clinical endpoint

The outcome a trial is designed to measure to judge whether a treatment works, such as survival, symptom relief or disease recurrence. The primary endpoint is chosen before the trial starts. Breakthroughs →

Companion diagnostic

A test that identifies which patients are likely to benefit from, or be harmed by, a specific treatment. Regulators approve some companion diagnostics alongside the drug they are paired with. Cancer Frontiers →

Control group

Participants in a study who do not receive the treatment being tested, receiving a placebo or standard care instead. Comparing them with the treated group shows what effect the treatment actually had. Breakthroughs →

CRISPR

A gene-editing tool, adapted from a bacterial defence system, that uses a guide RNA to direct an enzyme to a specific DNA sequence. It lets researchers cut and change DNA more precisely and easily than older methods. Genome + Cells →

D

Digital twin

A computer model of a real system, such as an organ or a patient, that is updated with data from the real thing. In medicine, digital twins are mostly still a research concept. AI + Medicine →

DNA methylation

A chemical tag added to DNA that can switch genes down without changing the DNA letters. Patterns of methylation change with age and are used in epigenetic clocks. Longevity →

Double-blind

A study design in which neither the participants nor the researchers assessing them know who is receiving the real treatment. It reduces bias from expectations. Breakthroughs →

E

Epigenetics

Changes in how genes are switched on or off that do not alter the DNA sequence itself. Epigenetic marks can be influenced by development, environment and aging. Genome + Cells →

Exome

The part of the genome that codes for proteins, made up of all the exons. It is only a small fraction of the genome but contains many known disease-causing variants. Genome + Cells →

F

False negative

A test result that says a condition is absent when it is actually present. False negatives can give false reassurance. Cancer Frontiers →

False positive

A test result that says a condition is present when it is actually absent. In screening large healthy populations, false positives can lead to anxiety and unnecessary follow-up procedures. Cancer Frontiers →

G

Gene expression

The process by which information in a gene is used to make a product, usually a protein, via RNA. Cells control which genes are expressed, which is why a nerve cell differs from a skin cell. Genome + Cells →

Gene therapy

A treatment that adds, replaces, silences or edits genetic material in a person's cells to treat or prevent disease. Several gene therapies are approved for specific conditions. Genome + Cells →

Genome

The complete set of DNA instructions in an organism or cell. The human genome is about three billion base pairs long. Genome + Cells →

Germline vs somatic

Germline variants are inherited and present in almost every cell, and can be passed to children. Somatic variants arise during a person's life in particular cells, such as a tumour, and are not inherited. Genome + Cells →

H

Healthspan

The part of life spent in generally good health, free from serious disease or disability. Many aging researchers focus on extending healthspan, not just lifespan. Longevity →

I

Immunotherapy

Treatment that uses or boosts the immune system to fight disease, especially cancer. Examples include checkpoint inhibitors, CAR-T cells and some cancer vaccines. Cancer Frontiers →

In silico

Done by computer simulation or analysis rather than in a lab or living organism. Examples include virtual drug screening and computer models of disease. AI + Medicine →

In vitro

Done outside a living organism, typically in test tubes, dishes or cell cultures. Latin for 'in glass'. Breakthroughs →

In vivo

Done in a living organism, such as an animal or a person. Latin for 'in the living'. Breakthroughs →

Investigational New Drug application (IND)

The request a sponsor submits to the US FDA before testing an unapproved drug in people. It includes preclinical data, manufacturing information and the planned trial protocol. Companies + Stocks →

L

Liquid biopsy

A test that looks for signs of cancer, such as fragments of tumour DNA, in a blood sample or other body fluid instead of a tissue sample. Uses include guiding treatment and research into early detection. Cancer Frontiers →

M

Machine learning

A branch of AI in which computer programs learn patterns from data rather than following hand-written rules. In medicine it is used for tasks like reading images and predicting risk. AI + Medicine →

Metastasis

The spread of cancer from where it started to other parts of the body. Metastatic cancer is generally harder to treat than cancer confined to its original site. Cancer Frontiers →

Monoclonal antibody

A lab-made antibody designed to bind one specific target, such as a protein on a cancer cell or an immune signal. Many modern medicines are monoclonal antibodies. Companies + Stocks →

mRNA

Messenger RNA, the molecule that carries instructions from a gene to the cell's protein-making machinery. mRNA medicines deliver instructions so cells temporarily make a chosen protein. Genome + Cells →

Mutation

A change in a DNA sequence. Some mutations cause disease, many have no noticeable effect, and a few are beneficial; geneticists often use the neutral word 'variant'. Genome + Cells →

N

Neoantigen

A new protein fragment produced by mutations in a tumour that the immune system may recognise as foreign. Neoantigens are targets for some personalised cancer vaccines. Cancer Frontiers →

O

Organoid

A tiny, simplified, three-dimensional tissue grown from stem cells in the lab that mimics some features of a real organ. Organoids are used to study disease and test drugs. DeepTech + MedTech →

Overdiagnosis

Diagnosing a condition, such as a slow-growing cancer, that would never have caused symptoms or harm in the person's lifetime. It can lead to treatment that brings side effects without benefit. Cancer Frontiers →

P

Penetrance

The proportion of people carrying a particular genetic variant who actually develop the related condition. A variant with incomplete penetrance does not cause disease in everyone who has it. Genome + Cells →

Pharmacogenomics

The study of how a person's genes affect their response to medicines, including how quickly they process a drug. It can guide drug choice or dose for some medicines. Genome + Cells →

Phase 1 trial

The first stage of testing a new treatment in people, usually in a small group, focused mainly on safety, dosing and side effects. Breakthroughs →

Phase 2 trial

A mid-stage trial, often with up to several hundred people with the condition, that looks for signs the treatment works and continues to study safety. Breakthroughs →

Phase 3 trial

A large trial, often with hundreds to thousands of participants, that tests whether a treatment works better than or as well as existing options and monitors side effects. Results often support regulatory approval. Breakthroughs →

Placebo

An inactive treatment made to look like the real one, used as a comparison in trials. It helps separate a drug's true effect from expectation and natural changes over time. Breakthroughs →

Positive predictive value

The chance that a person with a positive test result actually has the condition. It depends not only on the test but on how common the condition is in the group tested. Cancer Frontiers →

Precision oncology

Cancer care that tailors treatment to the specific features of a patient's tumour, such as its genetic changes. It relies on tumour testing and matched targeted drugs. Cancer Frontiers →

Preclinical

Research done before testing in humans, using lab experiments, cells and animals to study how a treatment works and whether it seems safe enough to try in people. Breakthroughs →

Protein structure prediction

Using computation to predict a protein's three-dimensional shape from its sequence of amino acids. AI tools have greatly improved these predictions, which helps drug design. AI + Medicine →

R

Randomized controlled trial

A study in which participants are assigned by chance to receive either the treatment being tested or a comparison, such as a placebo or standard care. It is the strongest common design for showing cause and effect. Breakthroughs →

Remission

A decrease in or disappearance of signs and symptoms of disease. In cancer, remission can be partial or complete, and complete remission does not always mean cure. Cancer Frontiers →

S

Senescence

A state in which cells permanently stop dividing but do not die. Senescent cells accumulate with age and can release signals that affect nearby tissue. Longevity →

Sensitivity

The proportion of people who truly have a condition that a test correctly identifies as positive. A highly sensitive test misses few cases. Cancer Frontiers →

Specificity

The proportion of people who truly do not have a condition that a test correctly identifies as negative. A highly specific test produces few false alarms. Cancer Frontiers →

Stem cell

A cell that can renew itself and develop into specialised cell types. Stem cells are used in research and in some established treatments, such as bone marrow transplants. Genome + Cells →

Surrogate endpoint

A measurement, such as tumour shrinkage or a blood marker, used in a trial as a stand-in for an outcome patients care about, like survival. It speeds up trials but may not always predict real benefit. Breakthroughs →

T

Targeted therapy

A drug designed to act on specific molecules involved in a disease, such as a protein made by a mutated cancer gene. It often requires testing to find patients whose disease has that target. Cancer Frontiers →

Tumor microenvironment

The cells, blood vessels, immune cells and signals surrounding a tumour. It can help or hinder cancer growth and affects how well treatments work. Cancer Frontiers →

V

Variant of uncertain significance

A genetic change for which there is not yet enough evidence to say whether it causes disease. It should generally not be used on its own to make medical decisions, and it may be reclassified later. Genome + Cells →